Fig. 1 Procedure for the fabricating of β-TCP scaffold coated with amorphous carbon (a), and adhesion (b) and ALP activity (c) of BMSCs cultured on the samples[18]

Fig. 2 (a) Fabrication procedure of bredigite (BRT) scaffolds with modified micro/nanostructure on the surface, cell adhesion behavior of (b) chondrocytes and (c) BMSCs cultured on different scaffolds, and expression level of (d) chondrogenesis of chondrocytes and (e) osteogenesis related genes of BMSCs cultured on different scaffolds, respectively[28]

Fig. 3 Surface morphology of β-TCP and CA coated β-TCP (β-TCP-C) detected with (a) SEM (yellow, CA) and (b) atomic force microscope, (c) photothermal performance of β-TCP and β-TCP-C, (d) cell adhesion behavior and FN-expression of BMSCs cultured on β-TCP and β-TCP-C, and (e) osteogenesis capability of β-TCP and β-TCP-C scaffold in vivo[32]

Fig. 4 (a) Morphologies of CS and Sr-CS scaffolds, expression level of (b) osteogenic genes of BMSCs-OVX and (c) angiogenic genes of HUVECs cultured with the extracts of CS and Sr-CS scaffolds, (d) micro-CT images (d1, CS; d2, Sr-CS), (e) morphometric analysis and (f) VG staining results of the new formed bone (left: CS; right: Sr-CS)[39]

Fig. 5 (a) Structure-diagram and (b) digital images of biomimetic β-TCP scaffolds (c) SEM images of (c1-c2) compact/cancellous interface of natural bone and (c3-c4) dense/porous interface of scaffold, (d) function curves of compression strength, modulus of elasticity and dense/porous cross-sectional area ratio[61]

Fig. 6 Morphologies (top view (a) and side view (b)) of 3D printing bioglass scaffolds containing Cu, Fe, Mn, Co elements and pure bioglass, (c-e) expression of osteogenic genes of BMSCs cultured on culture plate, 3D printing bioglass scaffolds containing Cu, Fe, Mn, Co elements doping and pure bioglass[55]

Fig. 7 Schematic illustration of fabrication process of BP-BG scaffold and stepwise therapeutic strategy for the elimination of osteosarcoma followed by osteogenesis by BP-BG[16]

Fig. 8 (a) Schematic diagram of AKT-Fe3O4-CaO2 scaffold functioning to obtain efficient tumor ablation and enhanced bone regeneration, (b) SEM images of AKT and AKT-Fe3O4-CaO2 scaffold (red arrows: Fe3O4 nanoparticles; yellow arrows: CaO2 nanoparticles), (c) magnetization curves of AKT-Fe3O4-CaO2 scaffolds soaked in Fe3O4 suspensions with various concentrations, (d) in vitro therapeutic effect of AKT-Fe3O4-CaO2 scaffold, (e) infrared images of nude mice in alternating magnetic fields, (f) in vivo therapeutic effect of AKT-Fe3O4-CaO2 scaffold, (g, h) expression of osteogenic genes of BMSCs, and (i) regeneration of cranium defects implanted with AKT and AKT-Fe3O4-CaO2 scaffolds[7] (1 emu?g-1= 1×103 A?m-1?g-1, 1 Oe=80 A?m-1)